Air Transport System
| Website: | Hamburg Open Online University |
| Kurs: | MoGoLo - Mobility of Goods and Logistics Systems |
| Buch: | Air Transport System |
| Gedruckt von: | Gast |
| Datum: | Freitag, 18. Oktober 2024, 14:27 |
Beschreibung
In this section, you will learn more about the air
transport system. The air transport system will
be presented according to the structure of the conceptual system model of transport and traffic.
You will learn more about the goods, being
transported by air, the different kind of airplanes, used air corridors
and airports.
1. Introduction
In this section, you will learn more about the air transport system. You
will get to know the activities that drive this system and the goods
that are transported by air transport. You will then be introduced to
the airplanes used for transportation. In addition, the infrastructure
of the air corridors and its airport facilities will be explained.
Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of air transport will be
highlighted.
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Literature
Flämig, H., Sjöstedt, L., Hertel, C. (2002): Multimodal Transport: An Integrated Element for Last-Mile-Solutions?
Proceedings, part 1; International Congress on Freight Transport
Automation and Multimodality: Organisational and Technological
Innovations. Delft, 23 & 24 May 2002. (modification of Sjöstedt
1996)
2. Activities
On this page, the element "Activities" will be presented to you.
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Same as in the last topics, activities are driving the system.
The activities require the presence of persons and goods at specific facilities that are specially designed to incorporate certain types of activities.
- Each such activity creates the demand to ensure accession to the facility where the activity is scheduled to take place.
- This creates the demand for offering transport options
- When the transport option is realised, traffic is generated.
- Thus all demand is a derived demand, which are all generated by the planning and execution of human activities.
- So we as consumers drive the system, while the order is the steering medium.
On the next page, you will learn more about the kind of goods being transported by air.
Literature
Literature
Flämig, H., Sjöstedt, L., Hertel, C. (2002): Multimodal Transport: An Integrated Element for Last-Mile-Solutions?
Proceedings, part 1; International Congress on Freight Transport
Automation and Multimodality: Organisational and Technological
Innovations. Delft, 23 & 24 May 2002. (modification of Sjöstedt
1996)
3. Goods
Different kind of goods can be transported by air, which will be presented to you on this page.
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In terms of weight, only 1 % of globally transported goods are
transported by air, but these represent 30 % of the value of goods
transported. Air freight tends to be used to ship mainly small, light
goods that tend to be of high value.
The most common types of goods being transported by air are
- emergency shipments
- perishable goods (goods with a physically limited shelf life, goods with a rapid loss of value due to market conditions, e.g. clothing)
- goods with a high value-to-weight ratio (electrotechnical, precision mechanical, pharmaceutical and optical products, e.g. computer processors, PCs, cell phones, tools, medicines, cameras, etc., as well as art and other valuables)
The three groups of goods, that are mainly shipped by air freight in Germany are electronic goods, machines and optical devices.
In
Germany, prior to Covid-19, in 2019 4.7 million tonnes were handled at
German airports and 61.5 million tonnes worldwide. In 2020, German
airports handled 4.6 million tonnes, the airports worldwide handled 56.1
million tonnes.
For air transport, air traffic containers are being used. Those containers are unit carriers and are adapted to the shape of the plane (figure "Air containers in an airplane").
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The following pictures are showing different kinds of air traffic containers. As you can see, the shapes of the containers are adapted to the shape of the airplanes. Containers for the lower deck are having a flattened side and corner, so that they fit better to the round shape of the airplane. Containers for the middle deck don‘t always need to have this adapted shape, but for the containers at the edge, a lot of times the upper corner is flattened as well.
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Transport
Air freight transport can be organised either as a forwarder or integrator transport.
The difference between the two types of transport is the runtime of the transport and the weight transported.
While the classic D2D (Door-to-Door) Transport has set the focus on all cargo and takes around 5-6 days, the focus of the integrator D2D Transport is set to cargo up to 500kg and takes around 2-3 days.
The
different stakeholders involved in the classic and the integrator D2D
transport are shown in the figure "Classic and Integrator D2D
Transport".
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Air freight transport is often organised in a Hub-and-Spoke-Network.
A
hub & spoke network is a special network with a certain number of
nodes between which a flow of goods exists. A subset of centrally
located nodes serves as a transhipment point (hub). The remaining nodes
(end nodes) are connected in a star shape by a spoke and usually with
one hub. The flow of goods between two nodes is direct if both nodes are
hubs or one of the two is a hub and both are connected by a spoke.
Otherwise, the flow is routed via at least one other hub. In contrast to
complete networks, in which every node is connected to every other node
and direct transports take place, a hub-and-spoke network contains
significantly fewer connections. The transport volume per connection is
greater, so larger transport units can be selected and thus transport
costs saved. However, the transport times between the end nodes of such a
network are usually longer than in complete networks. Hub-and-Spoke
networks are used in air traffic, by large freight forwarders, parcel
services and the postal service as well as computer and communication
networks. (Domschke et al. 2018, S. 10)
The following figure "Hub-and-spoke systems" shows a hub-and-spoke network. In this case, the hub in Germany is located in Frankfurt. Some of the most important hubs worldwide are marked in red.
The figure also
shows the different amounts of connections. By using a hub and spoke
structure, the number of connections can be reduced to n.
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Literature
Domschke,
Wolfgang; Drexl, Andreas; Mayer, Gabriela; Tadumadze, Giorgi (2018):
Betriebliche Standortplanung. In: Horst Tempelmeier (Hg.): Planung
logistischer Systeme. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, S.
1–27.
Flämig, H., Sjöstedt, L., Hertel, C. (2002): Multimodal Transport: An Integrated Element for Last-Mile-Solutions?
Proceedings, part 1; International Congress on Freight Transport
Automation and Multimodality: Organisational and Technological
Innovations. Delft, 23 & 24 May 2002. (modification of Sjöstedt
1996)
Logistikbranche (2021): Luftfrachtaffine Güter. URL: https://www.logistikbranche.net/dossier/wettbewerb-luftfracht/kennzeichen/nachfrage/luftfrachtaffine-gueter.html (last access: 30.03.2022)
BDL (2017): Was wird per Luftfracht transportiert?. URL: https://www.bdl.aero/de/publikation/was-wird-per-luftfracht-transportiert/ (last access: 30.03.2022)
DSV (2021): Lademittel. URL: https://www.dsv.com/de-de/unsere-loesungen/transportarten/luftfracht/lademittel (last access: 30.03.2022)
DSV (2021): M1 / AMA Containerspezifikationen. URL: https://www.dsv.com/de-de/unsere-loesungen/transportarten/luftfracht/lademittel/m1-ama-container (last access: 30.03.2022)
Emirates SkyCargo (2021): Unit Load Devices (ULDs) and specialised equipment. URL: https://www.skycargo.com/equipment/ (last access: 30.03.2022)
Lufthansa Cargo AG (2021): Unsere Container. URL: https://lufthansa-cargo.com/de/fleet-ulds/ulds/containers (last access: 30.03.2022)
Lumsden, K. (2000); Fundamentals of Logistics, Translation of selected chapters of the book “Logistikens Grunder”. Göteborg.
Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis) (2021): Beförderungsmenge und Beförderungsleistung nach Verkehrsträgern. URL: https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Branchen-Unternehmen/Transport-Verkehr/Gueterverkehr/Tabellen/gueterbefoerderung-lr.html;jsessionid=28D4BCFFEA620E429BD410C7E1A921CE.live731#fussnote-4-121622 (last access: 30.03.2022)
3.1. Quiz - Goods in air freight
Feel free to check your knowledge with the following questions.
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Now you learned, what kind of goods are being transported by air.
On the next page, you will learn more about the airplanes needed for the
transport of those goods.
4. Airplanes
On this page, the movables of the air transport system model are
presented to you. In terms of air transport, those movables are the
"Airplanes".
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Different types of aircraft are used for air freight transportation, depending on the quantity of goods to be transported and the transport distance.
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The following list shows different kinds of freight airplanes. Some
of them will be presented to you in detail below. Airplanes can either
transport persons and goods at the same time, or they can be used for
cargo transport only.
Overview freight airplanes
Current model series Airbus
Overview freight airplanes
Current model series Airbus
- A350F
- A321P2F
- A330-200F
- A330-P2F
- BelugaST
- BelugaXL
- Boeing 777F
- Boeing MD-11
- Antonow AN-225
While the A319 and the A330 are transporting passengers and freight at the same time, the A321P2F, A330-200P2F, BelugaST, BelugaXL and Boeing 777F are used exclusively for freight transport..
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The relation between airplanes and air corridors is called traffic.
Traffic
Air traffic is taking place especially between the USA, Europe and Asia.
The figure "Air traffic flows" shows the intercontinental flows. The size of the arrow is dependent on the traffic volume.
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Various traffic management and control systems are used to ensure safe air traffic operations.
Air Traffic Management Systems
Air traffic management (ATM) means the aggregation of the airborne and ground-based functions (air traffic services, airspace management and air traffic flow management) required to ensure the safe and efficient movement of aircraft during all phases of operations.
Air Traffic Management Systems
Air traffic management (ATM) means the aggregation of the airborne and ground-based functions (air traffic services, airspace management and air traffic flow management) required to ensure the safe and efficient movement of aircraft during all phases of operations.
Air traffic control (ATC) service means a service provided for the purpose of:
- preventing collisions: - between aircraft, and - in the maneuvering area between aircraft and obstructions.
- expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of air traffic.
Air Space Management means planning and dividing available airspace with the aim of making the best possible use of it.
Air Traffic Flow Management means
planning and controlling the volume of air traffic with the aim of
ensuring a safe, orderly and high traffic flow. To this end,
- the maximum utilization of existing capacities must be ensured and
- congestion situations in individual traffic areas must be avoided by regulating traffic.
As presented to you before, the air traffic can be carried out either by passenger and freight airplanes or by only freight airplanes.
Intercontinental flight passage with belly cargo
The share of revenue on an intercontinental flight in the air freight area of an airline can account for up to 20 %. Air cargo thus plays a significant role in the profitability of an intercontinental flight. If there is unpaired traffic (e.g. west-east weakness) in the air freight area, this does not necessarily lead to the discontinuation of the route service. This is quite different in the passenger sector (First, Business and Eco Class). Not all intercontinental connections are the same. A distinction must always be made between hub feeders and non-hub feeders, which have different value and contribution margins for the airlines.
Intercontinental all-cargo flight
The air cargo revenue share on a freighter flight is 100 %. It is therefore a decisive factor in determining the profitability of a freighter flight. If there is unbalanced traffic (west-east weakness) and/or poor yield (rate) in the air cargo sector, this usually leads to the discontinuation of route operations in the long term. Also in the case of a freighter flight, a distinction must be made between hub and non-hub flights, which have different value and contribution margins for the airlines.
Literature
Airbus (2021): A319ceo. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/a320/a319ceo (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): A330-300. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/a330/a330-300 (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): A321P2F. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/freighters/a321p2f (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): A330-200F. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/freighters/a330-200f (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): BelugaST. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/freighters/belugast (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): BelugaXL. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/freighters/belugaxl (last access: 30.03.2022).
EASA (2018): What is the difference between ATM and ATC? URL: https://www.easa.europa.eu/faq/45953 (last access: 30.03.2022).
Flämig, H., Sjöstedt, L., Hertel, C. (2002): Multimodal Transport: An Integrated Element for Last-Mile-Solutions?
Proceedings, part 1; International Congress on Freight Transport
Automation and Multimodality: Organisational and Technological
Innovations. Delft, 23 & 24 May 2002. (modification of Sjöstedt
1996)
Lufthansa Cargo (2021): B777F. URL: https://lufthansa-cargo.com/de-DE/web/guest/fleet-ulds/fleet/b777f (last access: 30.03.2022).
4.1. Quiz - Airplanes and air traffic
You can test yourself with the following questions:
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Now that you learned more about airplanes and traffic, the next
page will teach you more about the air corridors being used for air
transport.
5. Air corridors
This page will deal with the element „Infrastructure“ of the conceptual system model of transport and traffic.
In case of the air transport system, air corridors are the underlying infrastructure that is used to transport goods from A to B.
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The flight path needs to be planned in advance. Aircrafts use
different airspace classes depending on the type of aircraft and the
distance flown. These airspace classes differ in terms of existing
specifications.
Air space structure
Air space structure
In
aeronautics, airspaces are the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a
country above its territory. The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) has defined an airspace structure with different
airspace classes from A (Alfa) to G (Golf). The use of these classes
depends on the country. Airspace classes A and B are not being used in
Germany. The distinction between the classes is roughly made by the type
of control of these airspaces (controlled/uncontrolled airspace) and
includes broad guidelines for flying through these areas. The control of
the different airspace classes is carried out by the air traffic
control (ATC). Pilots must follow the instructions of ATC, who specify
in which airspace class may be flown.
Own course suggestions can be considered by ATC.
The following figure shows the different airspace classes.
The following figure shows the different airspace classes.
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Abbreviations
AGL: Above ground level
AMSL: Above mean sea level
FL: Flight level
AMSL: Above mean sea level
FL: Flight level
MSL: Mean sea level
Air Navigation Services are used to ensure safe air traffic.
Air Navigation Services (ANS) includes air traffic services, communication, navigation and surveillance services, meteorological services for air navigation and aeronautical information services. The objectives of ANS are to:
- prevent collisions between aircraft;
- prevent collisions between aircraft on the maneuvering area and obstructions on that area; note that this objective does not include the apron and ANS in general is not intended to prevent collision with terrain.
- expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic;
- provide advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights;
- notify appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue aid, and assist such organizations as required.
The relation between the air corridors and airports is called land use.
Land use
Land
use is the location of facilities at specific sites and is the combined
result of public planning and complex market mechanisms. It may be seen
as an interaction between a planned facility and infrastructure in its
widest sense. This results in giving the facility a permanent address.
Literature
Literature
EASA (2018): What are Air Navigation Services (ANS) according to EASA? URL: https://www.easa.europa.eu/faq/45957 (last access: 30.03.2022).
Flämig, H., Sjöstedt, L., Hertel, C. (2002): Multimodal Transport: An Integrated Element for Last-Mile-Solutions?
Proceedings, part 1; International Congress on Freight Transport
Automation and Multimodality: Organisational and Technological
Innovations. Delft, 23 & 24 May 2002. (modification of Sjöstedt
1996)
IFALPA (2019): Airspace Classification. URL: https://www.vcockpit.de/fileadmin/dokumente/themen/Airprox/19atsbl01-airspace-classification.pdf (last access: 30.03.2022).
5.1. Quiz - Airspaces
Feel free to check you knowledge on air corridors by answering the following question.
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Now that you learned more about the air corridors, we will move on to the last element of the air system model "Airports".
6. Airports
On this page, you will learn more about the element facilities. In the
air transport system, the facilities are called "Airports".
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International transport chains are always multimodal transport
because the location of consignor and consignee are usually not on
logistic nodes (exception for example: Airbus).
Therefore, airports are often gateways to large Hinterland regions and are not only for realising modal shift, but are multifunctional hubs, often providing handling and storage functions as well.
According to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2021), an airport is “any area of land or water used or intended for landing or take-off of aircraft including appurtenant area used or intended for airport buildings, facilities, as well as rights of way together with the buildings and facilities.”
Depending on its size, an airport has different infrastructure such as hangars, aircraft maintenance facilities, ground handling facilities, air traffic control and service facilities for passengers (restaurants, lounges and security services).
Airports link land- and airside modes of transportation and have three main functions.
- Route safety function; which includes ensuring safe take-offs and landings, as well as safeguarding the flow of traffic on the airfields.
- Clearance function; which includes the operational handling of aircrafts as well as the handling of the cargo (passengers, freight or mail).
- Support function; which are focused on the ancillary tasks associated with air traffic. This includes general auxiliary tasks, such as maintenance tasks, as well as special auxiliary tasks that generally serve to satisfy the needs of airline customers and airport visitors.
In Germany, the most important airports for cargo are Frankfurt, Leipzig/Halle and Köln/Bonn.
An exemplary layout of an airport is shown in the following figure.
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As you can see, the airport is able to handle passengers and
freight. The aircrafts are parked either at the jet bridges (for
passengers) or at the aircraft stands at the apron. By using the
taxiway, the aircrafts are driving to the runway for takeoff or they are
taking the taxiway after landing on the runway to drive to their
parking space.
The relation between airports and goods is called accession.
The relation between airports and goods is called accession.
Accession
Accession
is an interaction between persons/goods and facilities. It is the
provision of options to move persons and goods between the locations of
two facilities A and B at specific times. Accession can be just the
theoretical possibility of moving between locations at any time, or it
could be the planned and even reserved possibility to carry out a
transport at a specific point of time. In the first case accession is
often measured in required transport time and (if relevant) frequency
(time distance between options). In the latter case arrival/delivery
within a specific time window is the normal criterion (Just-in-Time).
The accessibility of locations can be considered from three perspectives:
The accessibility of locations can be considered from three perspectives:
From a micro perspective, it is the possibility of goods being handed over to the recipient. Here it is usually construction measures of the building that limit the possibilities of direct transfer of goods (e.g. via a ramp) from the road vehicle to the recipient.
The meso perspective refers to the accessibility of the location of the consignee. Consignees with many suppliers in trade or industry or, for example, on large construction sites often experience traffic jams and significant time losses on the part of the carrier.
The macro perspective is the condition of the infrastructure to access a location. The dimensions (weight and size of the permissible vehicles) play a role here, as do possible restrictions on the time or space available for certain types of vehicle. But also the density of the traffic flow on the infrastructure restricts the accessibility of a location in the macro perspective.
There are a number of air cargo challenges in Germany, some of which are due to limited accessibility:
- overcrowded HUBs (turnaround times at FRA (Frankfurt) up to 12 hours!)
- air traffic control delays at the HUBs
- LEJ (Leipzig/Halle) has no original traffic
- congestion on the highways (travel time to and from FRA up to 8 hours)
- increased costs for ground transport (tolls, driving times for truck drivers, congestion)
- political objectives: Emission reduction (road and air)
- night flight bans, especially FRA, MUC (Munich) and BBI (Berlin-Brandenburg)
You can check your knowledge about airports by answering the following question.
FAA (2021): Airport Categories Airports. URL: https://www.faa.gov/airports/planning_capacity/categories/ (last access: 30.03.2022).
Flämig, H., Sjöstedt, L., Hertel, C. (2002): Multimodal Transport: An Integrated Element for Last-Mile-Solutions? Proceedings, part 1; International Congress on Freight Transport Automation and Multimodality: Organisational and Technological Innovations. Delft, 23 & 24 May 2002. (modification of Sjöstedt 1996)
Flämig, H., Sjöstedt, L., Hertel, C. (2002): Multimodal Transport: An Integrated Element for Last-Mile-Solutions? Proceedings, part 1; International Congress on Freight Transport Automation and Multimodality: Organisational and Technological Innovations. Delft, 23 & 24 May 2002. (modification of Sjöstedt 1996)
Rößger, E.; Haucke, K.; Hünermann, B.; Jaden, E. (1970): Airport Functions: Die Bedeutung eines Flughafens für die Wirtschaft in seiner Umgebung
6.1. Quiz - Airports
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On the next page, you can find a short summary of the air transport system.
7. Summary
In order to sum up the topic „Air Transport System“, we will present you some advantages and disadvantages of the air transport system.
Advantages
- high transport speed
- no need for packaging enduring see transportation
- high safety standards and low transport risks
- overall logistics concept is less susceptible to disruptions than that of other freight methods
- high degree of punctuality
Disadvantages
- high transportation costs
- high energy consumption
- transport of dangerous goods usually excluded
Sometimes, a combination of Sea and Air Transport is the best transport option. The following figure shows, what kind of goods might be suitable for a Sea-Air-Transport.
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Literature
BSL Management Consulting Hamburg (2007): Die Vorteile von Sea-Air Verkehren.
Schulte, C. (1995): Logistik. Wege zur Optimierung des Material- und Informationsflusses. 2., überarb. und erw. Aufl. München: Vahlen.
7.1. Quiz - Advantages and system model air transport
You can check your knowledge about air transport with the following quiz.
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You mastered the topic air transport system, well done! If you are
interested in other modes of transport too, feel free to check our other
topics road transport system, rail transport system, inland waterway transport system and maritime transport system.
8. Literature
Airbus (2021): A319ceo. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/a320/a319ceo (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): A321P2F. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/freighters/a321p2f (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): A330-200F. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/freighters/a330-200f (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): A330-300. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/a330/a330-300 (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): BelugaST. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/freighters/belugast (last access: 30.03.2022).
Airbus (2021): BelugaXL. URL: https://aircraft.airbus.com/en/aircraft/freighters/belugaxl (last access: 30.03.2022).
BDL (2017): Was wird per Luftfracht transportiert?. URL: https://www.bdl.aero/de/publikation/was-wird-per-luftfracht-transportiert/ (last access: 30.03.2022)
BSL Management Consulting Hamburg (2007): Die Vorteile von Sea-Air Verkehren.
Domschke et al. (2018) Betriebliche Standortplanung. In: Horst Tempelmeier (Hg.): Planung logistischer Systeme. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, S. 1–27.
DSV (2021): Lademittel. URL: https://www.dsv.com/de-de/unsere-loesungen/transportarten/luftfracht/lademittel (last access: 30.03.2022)
DSV (2021): M1 / AMA Containerspezifikationen. URL: https://www.dsv.com/de-de/unsere-loesungen/transportarten/luftfracht/lademittel/m1-ama-container (last access: 30.03.2022)
EASA (2018): What are Air Navigation Services (ANS) according to EASA? URL: https://www.easa.europa.eu/faq/45953 (last access: 30.03.2022).
EASA (2018): What is the difference between ATM and ATC? URL: https://www.easa.europa.eu/faq/45953 (last access: 30.03.2022).
Emirates SkyCargo (2021): Unit Load Devices (ULDs) and specialised equipment. URL: https://www.skycargo.com/equipment/ (last access: 30.03.2022).
FAA: Airport Categories Airports. URL: https://www.faa.gov/airports/planning_capacity/categories/ (last access: 30.03.2022).
Flämig, H., Sjöstedt, L., Hertel, C. (2002): Multimodal Transport: An Integrated Element for Last-Mile-Solutions?
Proceedings, part 1; International Congress on Freight Transport
Automation and Multimodality: Organisational and Technological
Innovations. Delft, 23 & 24 May 2002. (modification of Sjöstedt
1996)
IFALPA (2019): Airspace Classification. URL: https://www.vcockpit.de/fileadmin/dokumente/themen/Airprox/19atsbl01-airspace-classification.pdf (last access: 30.03.2022).
Logistikbranche (2021): Luftfrachtaffine Güter. URL: https://www.logistikbranche.net/dossier/wettbewerb-luftfracht/kennzeichen/nachfrage/luftfrachtaffine-gueter.html (last access: 30.03.2022)
Lufthansa Cargo (2021): B777F. URL: https://lufthansa-cargo.com/de-DE/web/guest/fleet-ulds/fleet/b777f (last access: 30.03.2022).
Lufthansa Cargo AG (2021): Unsere Container. URL: https://lufthansa-cargo.com/de/fleet-ulds/ulds/containers (last access: 30.03.2022).
Lumsden, K. (2000); Fundamentals of Logistics, Translation of selected chapters of the book “Logistikens Grunder”. Göteborg.
Rößger, E.; Haucke, K.; Hünermann, B.; Jaden, E. (1970): Airport Functions: Die Bedeutung eines Flughafens für die Wirtschaft in seiner Umgebung.
Schulte, C. (1995): Logistik. Wege zur Optimierung des Material- und Informationsflusses. 2., überarb. und erw. Aufl. München: Vahlen.
Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis) (2021): Beförderungsmenge und Beförderungsleistung nach Verkehrsträgern.URL: https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Branchen-Unternehmen/Transport-Verkehr/Gueterverkehr/Tabellen/gueterbefoerderung-lr.html;jsessionid=28D4BCFFEA620E429BD410C7E1A921CE.live731#fussnote-4-121622 (last access: 30.03.2022).